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Clive Staples Lewis fue un crítico y escritor de origen irlandés nacido en Belfast el 29 de noviembre de 1898. Descrito como un joven ateo, desde los quince años demostró un fuerte interés por la mitología griega y, posteriormente, por la mitología nórdica que ejercerían influencia en sus futuras obras. A los dieciocho años ingresa a la prestigiosa Universidad de Oxford, en la cual completa sus estudios, y allí ejerce como tutor y afiliado en el consejo de gobierno de esta institución entre los años 1925 y 1954.En 1936 escribe su primera obra, Alegorías del amor, un tratado en el que describe y analiza el tratamiento del tema del amor dentro de la literatura medieval. Esta obra podría considerarse como la que consolidó su prestigio en el ámbito académico. En 1931 ocurre un cambio en sus creencias religiosas: C. S Lewis decide “convertirse” al cristianismo. Esto fue motivado por la estrecha amistad que mantenía con el reconocido escritor británico John Ronald Reuel Tolkien, autor de El Señor De Los Anillos. A partir de este punto, C. Lewis comienza a publicar sus estudios religiosos, entre ellos destaca Cartas del diablo a su sobrino (1942) una obra satírica en la que un diablo le da instrucciones a su sobrino principiante sobre como corromper el alma humana. En 1950 publica El león, la bruja y el ropero, el primer libro de la serie de siete libros pertenecientes al género fantástico que podría considerarse la más reconocida obra de su carrera literaria: Las Crónicas de Narnia. Esta serie narra las aventuras de unos niños que por designios de Aslan, una figura mítica de la obra, tienen que ayudar a los habitantes de un reino ficticio llamado Narnia en tiempos de guerra. Esta obra está conformada por: El león, la bruja y el ropero (1950), El príncipe Caspian (1951), La travesía del Viajero del Alba (1952), La Silla de Plata (1953), El caballo y el muchacho (1954), El sobrino del mago (1955) y La última batalla (1956). 

CS Lewis sonriendo sentado lampara a su lado
C.S Lewis, desde Gettyimages


Las Crónicas de Narnia: La última batalla


En el libro final de la serie, La última batalla (2006), se expone un mundo apocalíptico en el que los protagonistas deben encontrar la forma de salvar a las personas que puedan y hacerlos recuperar su fe.


Durante la ausencia de Eustace y Jill ocurren muchas cosas: Tirian, el actual rey del país y descendiente de Caspian X, descubre que se gesta una conspiración en contra de los valores y creencias de los gobernantes y habitantes de Narnia. Un mono llamado Triquiñuela,víctima de la codicia,engaña a su amigo Puzzle, un asno honesto, para que vista una piel de león ajustada para su cuerpo con el fin de simular ser Aslan y así poder manipular a los narnianos a su antojo. Éstos, creyentes de que Aslan es quien los comanda, deciden rendirse ante los antiguos enemigos de Narnia: los calormenos, volviéndose así sus esclavos.


Al regresar a Narnia, Eustace y Jill se encuentran con un reino totalmente distinto. Gracias a las manipulaciones del mono,se han inculcado nuevas creencias en las mentes de los súbditos tales como que Aslan y el horrible dios Tash de los calormenos son la misma entidad. Esto impulsa a muchos narnianos a dejar de creer en la concepción de un Aslan real. En este último libro se relata la caída y muerte de Narnia, cómo las decisiones tomadas pueden impulsarlo hacia la luz de la vida eterna o la oscuridad del olvido.


De acuerdo a lo anterior, es posible preguntarnos lo siguiente: ¿Las acciones de los personajes se ven motivadas por creencias religiosas particulares?; ¿Cuál es el tratamiento dado a las creencias religiosas y filosóficas que coexisten en la obra?A través del análisis de algunos pasajes literarios presentes en el libro La última batalla (2006) de C. S. Lewis se pretende demostrar y analizar cómo en la obra la influencia cristiana del autor determina buena parte de la acción de la misma. De igual forma se intentará describir si el tratamiento ofrecido a otros personajes pertenecientes a otras culturas, creencias religiosas y filosóficas como el islamismo, la teoría de la evolución, ateísmo y otros movimientos presentes en el texto.


Las Crónicas de Narnia y lo fantástico


Dentro de esta investigación se tomarán en cuenta conceptos como la religión, teorías científicas como la evolución y el ateísmo. Pero, es preciso considerar un factor importante el hecho de ubicar de forma breve a la obra dentro de un género literario con el fin de contextualizar al lector sobre la forma en la que los elementos que se analizarán son presentados dentro de la obra. Tzvetan Todorov en su escrito Introducción a la literatura fantástica (1981) define lo fantástico como un estado entre lo real y lo extraño, en el que el lector necesariamente tiene que cumplir con una vacilación “entre una explicación natural y una explicación sobrenatural de los acontecimientos evocados.” (p 24). Esto puede reflejarse cuando en La última batalla, Eustace relata al rey Tirian la historia de cómo llegaron a Narnia con la finalidad de ayudarlo:


Así que subimos al tren, que es una cosa en la que la gente viaja en nuestro mundo: una serie de carros encadenados entre sí […] Bueno, pues ahí estábamos en el tren, y llegábamos ya a la estación donde se iban a reunir con nosotros […] cuando de improviso se produjo una sacudida y un ruido espantoso: y a continuación nos encontramos en Narnia. (Lewis, 2006, p.76)


A partir de esto, se pueden inferir dos explicaciones: una “natural” evocando a un accidente y estados de ensoñaciones debido al mismo y una “sobrenatural” tomando esa sacudida como acto de magia con lo cual se puede comprobar, de forma evidente, que esta obra se sitúa dentro del género fantástico.


Influencias del cristianismo y presencia de las mismas en la última batalla


Tomando en cuenta el aspecto religioso, la religión, según el Diccionario de la Real Academia Española (2014), es definida como “Conjunto de creencias o dogmas acerca de la divinidad, de sentimientos de veneración y temor hacia ella, de normas morales para la conducta individual y social y de prácticas rituales, principalmente la oración y el sacrificio para darle culto.”


Es necesario conocer este concepto pues como ha sido resaltado, la vida del autor C. S. Lewis se vio fuertemente influida por la religión cristiana. Este influjo posteriormente predominó en sus obras literarias.


Por otra parte, antes de analizar el texto es necesario aclarar la noción del cristianismo. Dicha noción es descrita por Brian Wilson en su libro Cristianismo (2001) como “la mayor tradición religiosa del mundo con 1.8 millones de fieles” (p.19), el cristianismo se puede definir como una religión monoteísta que fue pronunciada como dogma oficialmente en el año 384 d.c. por el Imperio romano (p.8). De acuerdo con Manuel Guerra en su libro Historia de las Religiones (1999), en la actualidad tiene muchas derivaciones pero sus rasgos comunes son principalmente tres: el monoteísmo trinitario (La Santísima Trinidad: Padre, Hijo y Espíritu Santo), creer en Jesús de Nazaret y tomar al bautizo como método de integración a la iglesia cristiana. (p.333). En el cristianismo, se tiene la firme creencia en un dios benevolente y celoso que no permite idolatría alguna hacia otros dioses por parte de sus creyentes.


De acuerdo a esto, se puede inferir a lo largo de la heptalogía de libros que quien asume el rol de divinidad es Aslan, el león todopoderoso. En El sobrino del mago (1955) y El príncipe Caspian (1951) pueden apreciarse claras alusiones a esto, pero en La última batalla se puede encontrar quizás la más evidente (tal vez a manera de conclusión de los libros) referencia a Aslan como representación de la deidad cristiana dentro de las obras. Esto sucede finalizando el relato, cuando finalmente los héroes se encuentran en la ansiada “Tierra de Aslan”:


⎯Aún no parecéis tan felices como deseo que seáis.


⎯Tenemos miedo de que nos eches, Aslan⎯respondió Lucy⎯. No has enviado de vuelta a nuestros mundos tantas veces…


⎯No existe la menor posibilidad de eso⎯respondió él⎯. ¿No lo habéis adivinado? […] Realmente hubo un accidente de ferrocarril. Vuestros padres y todos vosotros estáis como acostumbráis a llamarlo en el País de las Sombras, muertos. […]


Y mientras hablaba, ya no les pareció un león.
(Lewis, 2006, p.259)


La última línea indirectamente sugiere al lector que Aslan reveló a los protagonistas finalmente su verdadera forma de deidad, presumiblemente la figura de Cristo.


El islamismo y la figura del dios pagano “Tash”


Una vez evidenciada la influencia del cristianismo presente dentro de la obra, se puede reemprender una de las preguntas implícitas dentro de esta investigación: ¿Están siendo tratados con menosprecio las otras creencias que interactúan dentro del escrito? En este apartado será desarrollado el tratamiento ofrecido al islamismo en el libro.


Según Guerra (1999), el islam es una religión monoteísta cuya deidad es el dios Alá (Allah, en su idioma original). Poseen cinco obligaciones ético-religiosas o también denominadas “pilares islámicos”: la profesión de fe (el equivalente al bautismo en el cristianismo), la recitación de la oración canónica, la limosna (un impuesto sobre la mercadería destinado a los pobres y necesitados), el ayuno y la peregrinación a La Meca.


En La última batalla, los seguidores del islam son representados por el pueblo calormeno, provenientes de la calurosa y árida tierra de Calormen (una posible referencia al Medio Oriente), siempre rudos, morenos, crueles y malvados. En La última batalla (2006) los habitantes de esta tierra tienen un papel antagónico y junto al mono, Triquiñuela, forjan una alianza para manipular a los narnianos y volverlos esclavos.


La figura de Alá es encarnada por Tash, descrito en el libro como un ser malévolo, color gris, transparente y con olor a muerte.


Tenía más o menos la forma de un hombre, pero con la cabeza de un pájaro; un pájaro de presa con un pico curvo y muy afilado. Tenía cuatro brazos que sostenía muy por encima de la cabeza […] y los dedos ⎯los veinte⎯ eran curvos como el pico y mostraban largas zarpas afiladas. […] Flotaba sobre la hierba en vez de andar, y la hierba parecía marchitarse a su paso. (Lewis, 2006, p.119)


Este pasaje discurre mientras los héroes tratan de resguardarse después de un infructuoso ataque al establo donde se encontraba el mono, al ver a esta criatura lo identifican como Tash y declaran que ha venido por invocación a acabar con Narnia.


Un aspecto resaltante sobre la representación de Tash es el atributo que se agrega a su nombre en la obra, pues de acuerdo con Guerrero (1999) “A Alá se le aplica […] como al dios cristiano, todos los atributos, ya negándole todas las imperfecciones, […] ya atribuyéndole todas las perfecciones pero en grado sumo ‘omnipotente, eterno, clemente’” (p. 280) Mientras que el que usan los calormenos para referirse a su dios es “Tash, el inexorable.”Esta palabra definida por el Diccionario de la Real Academia Española (2014) como algo que “no se puede detener” o en su segunda acepción como “que no se deja vencer con ruegos.” Y esto, teniendo en cuenta el contraste entre el atributo otorgado a Alá en el islamismo e inclusive los honoríficos concedidos a Aslan en la obra, evidencia el tratamiento despectivo dispensado hacia esta figura religiosa. Todo esto hace que, en resultado, el atributo del dios Tash posea una connotación negativa para el lector.En adición, los protagonistas y Aslan en varios pasajes del escrito al referirse a Tash lo aluden como un “demonio” confirmando, finalmente, el tratamiento despectivo que recibe el islam en la obra, aclarado a profundidad por Aslan:


Somos opuestos… Tomo para mí los servicios que le has prestado. Pues él y yo somos tan diferentes que ningún servicio que sea infame puede ofrecérseme a mí y ninguno que no lo sea puede prestársele a él. Por lo tanto, si alguien jura por Tash y mantiene su juramento cueste lo que cueste, es en mi nombre por el que ha jurado en realidad, aunque no lo sepa, y yo soy quien se lo recompensa. Y si alguien lleva a cabo una crueldad en mi nombre, entonces, aunque pronuncie el nombre de Aslan, es a Tash a quien sirve y es Tash quien acepta su acción. (p. 235-236)


Triquiñuela: una alusión a la Teoría de la evolución


Triquiñuela, el mono, es el personaje antagónico de La última batalla y el único narniano durante todos los libros. Es detallado como “el mono más listo, feo y arrugado que puedan imaginarse.” (Lewis, 2006, p. 7), representa la depravación moral. Entre los denominados pecados capitales del cristianismo, se puede señalar lo que él ostenta: la gula, la avaricia, la pereza, la ira, la soberbia y la envidia.


Aunque todas esas características que posee Triquiñuelas (Shift en inglés) y el significado de su nombre lo convierten en un ser infame, desde la perspectiva del lector, se halla un aspecto aún más sobresaliente sobre este personaje. El hecho de que haya sido creado con la figura de un mono suscita conjeturas ya que no se puede suponer que sea esto por mera casualidad. Estas sospechas se afianzan al analizar un pasaje del libro en el que Triquiñuela dice:


⎯Y ahora hay otra cosa que debéis de aprender⎯siguió el mono⎯. He oído que algunos de vosotros vais diciendo que soy un mono. Bueno, pues no lo soy. Soy un hombre, si tengo aspecto de mono es porque soy muy viejo: tengo cientos y cientos de años. Y debido a que soy tan viejo, soy muy sabio. Y debido a que soy tan sabio, soy el único a quien Aslan va a hablar jamás. (Lewis, 2006, p. 47)


A partir de esto, se puede analizar este discurso en diferentes partes:


Primeramente, en la sección que enuncia “He oído que algunos de vosotros vais diciendo que soy un mono. Bueno, pues no lo soy.” Alude directamente a la teoría postulada por Charles Darwin en su libro El Origen de las especies (1859) en el que, entre otras hipótesis, postula la teoría de que el ser humano y el mono descienden de una rama común en un pasado remoto; por eso, segundamente, Triquiñuelas también manifiesta: “si tengo aspecto de mono es porque soy muy viejo: tengo cientos y cientos de años.” Cabe destacar que esta teoría ha creado controversias y debates que continúan aún en la actualidad, por un lado se encuentran los defensores de este postulado y por otro los oponentes, quienes defienden a la teoría creacionista.


Por otro lado, cuando leemos “Y debido a que soy tan sabio, soy el único a quien Aslan va a hablar jamás.” Puede referirse al hecho de que este postulado de Darwin (y la ciencia en general) es considerado por muchos como un factor que está alejando a las personas de la fe religiosa y es altamente defendido por las personas creyentes de la doctrina atea.


Los enanos son para los enanos: el ateísmo dentro de la obra


Guerra (1999) describe, por un lado, el ateísmo como:


Una palabra omnipresente en nuestro campo, […] acentúa la actitud radical de desconocimiento desinteresado por Dios y lo religioso…. (p. 379)


Por otro lado, Michael Martin en su libro Introducción al ateísmo (2010), define al ateísmo como:


Aquella creencia según la cual Dios no existe. […] Sin embargo no es un significado exacto si partimos de las raíces etimológicas en griego. En griego, «a» significa «sin» o «no» y «theos» significa «Dios». Por lo tanto, desde este punto de vista, un ateo es alguien que carece de fe en Dios, lo que no implica necesariamente que ese alguien niegue la existencia de Dios. (p. 19-20)


No es de sorprender que estos dos conceptos contrasten, ya que provienen de fuentes totalmente opuestas. Uno de un libro de introducción a la teología y otro que estudia las nuevas ramas que ha adoptado el ateísmo. Es bastante común observar este choque de opiniones en libros de ámbito religioso por lo que no toma por asombro encontrar referencias sobre el ateísmo dentro de La última batalla. Estas alusiones se encuentran presentes en los personajes de los enanos, controversiales por haber estado en un principio a favor de la primera enemiga de Narnia, la bruja blanca en El león, la bruja y el ropero (1950).


En La última batalla (2006), los enanos engañados por las manipulaciones del mono Triquiñuela y los calormenos, son sometidos y casi enviados a las minas para ser esclavos. Gracias a que el rey Tirian y sus amigos son rescatados, y ellos que ya tenían en su posesión a un muy afligido y arrepentido Puzzle deciden detallarles la verdad: habían sido timados por el mono. Los protagonistas de la historia pretenden tenerlos como aliados una vez liberados pero la reacción de los enanos no es la que ellos esperaban: una vez que Tirian les pide unirse a su causa ellos les responden:


⎯Vaya⎯dijo el enano negro⎯, no sé cómo os sentís vosotros, amigos, pero a mí me parece que ya he oído todo lo que quiero oír sobre Aslan durante el resto de mi vida.


⎯Es verdad, es verdad⎯gruñeron los otros enanos⎯. Es todo una treta, una maldita treta.


⎯ […] Ya nos han embaucado una vez y ahora esperas que nos dejemos embaucar una vez más, no vamos a aguantar ningún otro cuento más sobre Aslan […] ya nos engañaron una vez y no van a engañarnos de nuevo.
(Lewis, 2006, p. 106-107).


Y a partir de eso se suscita una rebelión en contra de los reyes y de Aslan, ellos afirmando que ya no desean más reyes ni más “Aslanes.” Concluyen diciendo “Se acabó Aslan, se acabaron los reyes, se acabaron las historias estúpidas sobre otros mundos. Los enanos son para los enanos.” (Lewis, 2006, p. 89) Y se marchan renunciando así a toda fe.


Claramente se puede interpretar como una advertencia sobre el carácter arduo de “las pruebas destinadas a la fe” y podría terminar allí el análisis pero estos personajes renegados se presentan en otros dos puntos resaltantes de la historia que se procederán a analizar a continuación.


El pueblo enano vuelve a aparecer en el clímax de la historia: la batalla frente al establo del mono. Donde Tirian, Eustace, Jill y sus aliados batallan por su vida contra los calormenos mientras que los habitantes de Calormen intentan empujarlos dentro del establo para ser sacrificados ya que sospechan que el dios Tash se encuentra en el interior del mismo y quieren que sus ofensas sean perdonadas. Gracias a los perros, los protagonistas obtienen refuerzos y cuando vislumbran la esperanza de ser los ganadores de la batalla, los enanos hacen su aparición y asesinan tanto calormenos como narnianos con el argumento de que “los enanos son para los enanos” y no desean más gobernantes. Finalmente, los enanos son atados y enviados a la fuerza al establo por los calormenos para enfrentarse a un futuro poco ameno.


El último pasaje en el que aparecen estos contradictorios personajes es en un reflexivo final, en el que se encuentran en El País de Aslan pero no pueden percibirlo, a través de sus ojos ellos se encuentran encerrados y atados dentro del oscuro establo. E hiciesen lo que hiciesen no les era posible cambiar esa percepción. Llorando, los protagonistas piden clemencia a Aslan pero éste les responde con tristeza que le es imposible hacer algo por ellos ya que decidieron adoptar “la malicia en lugar de la fe” (p. 212). Y así la alegoría sobre la falta de fe como motivo de sufrimiento, es decir, sobre cómo es un impedimento hacia la entrada de lo concebido como “paraíso” o “País de Aslan”, finaliza con los enanos diciendo: “Al menos no nos han engañado. No hemos dejado que nadie nos tome el pelo. Los enanos son para los enanos.” (p. 212).


Conclusión


El escritor C. S. Lewis en su libro La última batalla (2006) deja entrever a través del análisis minucioso de su obra, fuertes influencias religiosas dentro de la trama del texto. Éstas, de hecho, dictaminan gran parte de la historia.


De acuerdo con lo analizado en la extensión de esta investigación, fue posible demostrar que existen muchas alusiones a otras creencias religiosas y filosóficas en la estructura profunda del texto, todas al ser contrarias al dogma cristiano obtienen un tratamiento diferente y mayormente negativo dentro de la trama. Casi se puede afirmar con toda certeza que la doctrina cristiana C. S. Lewis que seguía en su vida personal influyó en la creación de los personajes de las Crónicas de Narnia y sus acciones dentro del argumento.




Referencias


Darwin, C. (1859). El origen de las especies. (1era ed.) Madrid: Ediciones 74.

Guerra, M. (1999). Historia de las religiones. (1era ed.) Madrid: Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos.

Lewis, C. (2006). La última batalla. (1era ed.) Barcelona, España: Planeta SA.

Martin, M. (2010). Introducción al ateísmo. (1era ed.) Madrid: Ediciones Akal.

Real Academia Española. (2014). Diccionario de la lengua española (23.a ed.). Madrid,España:Autor.

Todorov, T. (1981). Introducción a la literatura fantástica. (2da ed.) D.F: Premia.

Wilson, B. (2001). Cristianismo. (1era ed.) Madrid: Ediciones Akal.

"For every house is built by someone, but God is the builder of everything.”


Hebrews 3:4



Over the course of the years, the provenance of humans and everything that surrounds them have been the subject of reflection and search for the truth about it. When we think about the concept of “creation”, there are two opposite conceptions about this. On the one hand, take into account the physical aspect of creation that relates to the ability the human race has to create or build objects from scratch. From architecture, engineering and other disciplines, humans have tried to exercise this capacity. But going further, creation as a physical act also takes into consideration facts such as the biological process of birth or “creation” of a new being or the physical creation of the planets and everything inside of them. Those facts are studied by science, for instance, Physics tries to explain how the universe was created, taking into account only concrete aspects such as particles and chemical elements to get to a possible theory of how things were created. Another example of this may be biology that studies, among other things, the form in which a being can be developed until its birth, that is to say, biological elements that interact in the creation of life. This can be considered as a physical approach to the topic of creation that excludes every abstract element leaving only aspects that can be approached from a "partial" or scientific point of view.

Archetuctural structure in white
Retrieved from Pexels


On the other hand, there is a metaphysical conception of “creation.” First, it is necessary to define metaphysics as a way of thinking beyond the physical plane. This discipline takes into account abstract elements such as spirit, mind and conception. Religion and other distinct spiritual beliefs are among the greatest defenders of creation as a metaphysical fact. They take into special consideration non tangible objects as energies over particles and, especially in religion, divinity as a major actor in the creation process. The role of divinity within “creation” is not only related to the process of the creation of everything a person can observe around him or her but also to the form in which ideas are created in the human mind. With this, a divinity is considered the one who creates and therefore is religiously adored for it and consequently “divinity” can be taken as an object of veneration.


In the poem “Sunday Morning” of Wallace Stevens (1915) emerges a dichotomy between physics and metaphysics being represented the first by nature and the second by a god of a religion. The protagonist of the poem refuses to venerate a god of a religion and on the contrary, she proposes herself to give the "divinity" to the surrounding nature that is palpable and concrete. In the first two lines of the stanza II, she questions the divinity within a god since it is abstract and “only comes in silent shadows and in dreams” Later, she questions why she cannot venerate those thing around her such as 

“comforts of the sun,
In pungent fruit and bright, green wings, or else
In any balm or beauty of the earth.” 

With this, it is possible to argue that she feels relieved to only think on the physical things she can observe therefore, she does not want to think about a metaphysical plane, in this form, abandoning any religious aspect that can lead her to it. Regarding this, the fact that this reflection occurs on a sunday morning has to do with the fact that sundays are typically taken as a religious day that is dedicated to commemorate all the sacrifices and, among other things, the creation of everything by a non tangible entity called god and she refuses to keep worship to that day, on the contrary, using it to do activities of leisure as a late breakfast and reflecting.


Similarly, within the poem her mind is reflected as a calm water-lights and religion is represented as the “calm [that] darkens among water-lights” It can be argue that this conception of darkness in religion can be one of the main reasons she refuses to give veneration and divinity to an intangible god.


With all this, it is safe to argue that through “Sunday Morning” (1915). It is reflected the internal struggle between physical and metaphysical plane in the mind of the protagonist. Since for her, it is more peaceful to be focused on the concrete things that surround her– that may or may not be created naturally– than honors and venerate the creation and sacrifices of a god she cannot perceive physically.



References:

Stevens, W. (1915). Sunday Morning. Retrieved from https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poetrymagazine/poems/13261/sunday-morning January the 19th, 2018

Over the course of the years, the conception of the term “race” has been widely discussed as a legitimate field of study in literature. According to Malpas and Wake (2006), the perception of “race” is merely a social construct, a peculiar “modern invention” (p. 128). This invention has served to separate one “class of human being” from the other with the belief that human beings can be divided into different morphological categories. In accordance to Appiah (as cited in Malpas and Wake), nowadays, the system of division between races is still present in English literature (p. 132) predicating, for instance, the idea of a “black essence” in African American literature. With this, in the play Fences (1985) written by August Wilson, it is possible to observe some racial aspects that play an important role throughout its plot. In a 1950’s American society, Troy Maxson is a 53-year-old hard worker man who struggles with providing his family with his job as a trash collector in a racist environment. Unable to be in the Major League of Baseball, he blames social segregation of his failure and that motives him to reprove the wishes of his son, Cory, to have a football scholarship at college. Those factors lead them to have a problematic father-son relationship through the story. Having this in mind, in my opinion it can be argued that in Fences (1985), the racial perceptions Troy has on society and, as a consequence, his need to be the dominant figure in his family influence his relationship with Cory. 

Mykelti Williamson
Retrieved from gettyimages

According to the African American Literature (2011) website: “Racism has influenced Troy’s bitter attitude” (par.2) since living in an environment of segregation in which white people were privileged over the African American community shaped his beliefs and how he transmits it to his son, Cory. This can be noticed in the act I scene III of the play in which he explains to Cory why, for him, is so important to have a job and quit football:


The white man ain't gonna let you get nowhere with that football noway. You go on and get your book, learning so you can work yourself up in that A&P or learn how to fix cars or build houses or something, get you a trade. That way you have something can't nobody take away from you. (Wilson, 1985, p. 890).


With this, in my opinion, it is possible to argue that the main objective in Troy’s attitude is to protect Cory from the discrimination he suffered when he played in a Negroes Baseball League. In this sense, he tries to give Cory the tools for subsisting in an unequal social system.


Additionally, Ampensard (2007) asserts that not only racism but also masculinity and the overlapping of them played an important role in the attitude presented by Troy throughout the play, “Troy is consumed by his own need to “be a man,” and if [it is] possible to be the biggest man.” (par. 6) In this manner, it seems to me that Troy’s attitude is not only protective towards a racist context but also can be considered a controlling position over Cory. In other words, A mixture between two masculine figures (Cory and Troy) contesting in order to be predominant in a specific space. This can be seen when Cory finally confronts his father in the second act, scene IV:


CORY: You don't count around here no more.


TROY: Oh, I see ... I don't count around here no more. You ain't got to say excuse me to your daddy. All of a sudden you done got so grown that'your daddy don't count around here no more ... Around here in his own house and yard that he done paid for with the sweat of his brow. You done got so grown to where you gonna take over. You gonna take over my house. Is that right? You gonna wear my pants. You gonna go in there and stretch out on my bed. You ain't got to say excuse me cause I don't count around here no more. Is that right? (Wilson, 1985, p. 904).


In this scene, it is evident to me that both masculine figures are disputing for gaining power and the other for maintaining it. Moreover, I consider that from Troy’s perspective, the fact that Cory was chosen for a football scholarship diminishes his supremacy over Cory since Troy could not develop a successful baseball career due to the racist social system in which he grew up. Similarly, Ampensard (2007) agrees that “Troy’s principle route to establishing and maintaining his manhood — a legendary career as a baseball slugger — was closed off to him by racism.” By all this, it is possible for me to infer how a controlling authority based on masculinity and a protective behavior facing racism play intrinsic roles in Troy’s attitude and therefore how this influences his relationship with his son.


Finally, it seems to me that in this play, racism is one of the most important aspects to be discussed since, maybe, without this conception and division of “races” the character of Troy would be different. His entire life was affected by racist conceptions that took away many opportunities he could have to aspire to a better life. Without those opportunities he developed resentment towards his own life and the chances white people could have and he could not. Therefore, that resulted not only in a problematic relationship with himself but also with the people surrounding him, especially his son, Cory.


This illustration of segregation is not as distant to reality as we would like to think. In fact, the exclusion of minorities has been an important aspect widely discussed and treated throughout the history of the United States. At present, there are still problems of racism but they are not as visible as previously they were in history. That led me to think that although The United States declare to be a country of opportunities and equal rights, in a under level, they are still “separate but equal.”


References

African American Literature (2011). Defending Troy Maxton from Racial Discrimination in August Wilson’s Fences. Website. Retrieved March, 31 2017 from https://goo.gl/3M8hvd

Ampensard (2007). Racism and Masculinity in August Wilson's Fences. Website. Retrieved March, 30 2017 from https://goo.gl/SLhg6u

Malpas, S. & Wake, P (2006). The Routledge Companion to Critical Theory. New York: Routledge. Wilson, A. (1985). Fences. New York: Plum
 

Society is a collective construct of human thought. As a creation of human collectiveness, order and, therefore, hierarchy plays an important role in this production as different levels of importance of power in society. Some experts such as Emily Durkheim (1893) claimed that “people differ in ability, and that these abilities lead us to take on a different role in the labor force” (as cited in Khraus. 2012. para. 5). In other words, some could argue that social inequality is the consequence of inequality in terms of abilities among the individuals. Although it could be perceived as unethical, some advantages of this inequality are recalled such as an improvement in “productivity by allowing people to specialize their skills” (Khraus. 2012. para.7). In this sense, hierarchy could be considered as a necessity inside social order and a collective without this element is perceived as an unachievable utopia. 

 

Chimamanda Adichie Ngozie, dismination, the thing around your neck
Chimamanda Adichie Ngozie.Image from gettyimages


In contrast there is another school of thought that seeks to minimize and display abuses of power that may exist in the hierarchical structures of society. This thought is leaded by the Marxist school of thought, known as scientific socialism postulated by the philosopher, economist and sociologist Karl Marx that advocates for human freedom in opposition to the capitalist economy in which powerful people from a higher hierarchical position abuse their power for them and not for the less powerful population that comprises the lower hierarchical positions in society (Chambre and McLellan. 2018).


This current of thought has served as inspiration or basis to other theorists from diverse fields of investigation regarding economy, politics, sociology, linguistics and especially in specifics fields of the linguistics such as socio-linguistics. Concerning this field, the linguist Norman Fairclough (1989) designs a Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) applied to the sociolinguistics in which it is taken into consideration “language use and unequal relations of power” (p.1)in other words, language inside the social dynamics, specifically its relations and interactions with power structures such as the hierarchy imposed and perpetuated by society.

The aim of this analysis is to create awareness of the role of language in “domination of some people by others” (Fairclough, 1989, p.1) that is to say, the use of language as a tool to bend the lower classes used by the powerful ones. Furthermore, this analysis is proposed as a tridimensional discourse analysis in which it is divided in a textual level and macro and micro sociological levels of analysis in which are taken into account the technical aspects of the language and the sociological context in which it is situated making an emphasis in the social issues and struggles regarding power and social equality.



Discrimination in literature equal rights
Image retrieved from Gettyimages

Similarly, this type of analysis can be considered suitable for the nature of this research since it provides the tools for analyzing different social issues from two scientific perspectives. Moreover, language can be considered the most appropriate object of study of social problematic since, as Halliday (2004) asserts that language “construe human experience” (p.29) That is to say, language is a representation of human perceptions, experiences and contexts and within these elements there are space for the analysis of the relation between power and society and the interaction among both.


In addition, it could be considered that there is no deeper linguistic representation about human nature than literature. Welch (n.d) describes literature as a description of “human condition” (para. 1) specially regarding human society and phenomena. At present, one of the most outstanding phenomena in society is that of migration. The literature focused on topics such as migration, particularly from the perspective of immigrant writers, has brought as a result a literature that reflects “on the challenges of existence in multicultural and multilingual contexts” (Wajeman. 2016. para. 3) that is known as “new world literature”. Within these challenges of multicultural contexts topics such as identity, adaptation and discrimination haven taken important roles in the development of these works.


For the purpose of this research, it will be needed to define what is understood as identity and discrimination. Nakayama and Martin (2010) define identity as “the concept of who we are” (p.162). In other words, it can be considered a set of features that describe the person in different aspects such as origins and beliefs. As broad as it seems, the concept of identity includes several subcategories such as gender, sexual, age, racial, ethnic, religious, national and regional identities that along compose the personality and history of an individual. Moreover, the Human Rights Legal Support Centre describes discrimination as “unequal or different treatment or harassment that causes harm” In a related form, the discrimination takes into account the identity of the individual but as a role within society, taking into account only the unequal treatment of the individual within social structure.

 

Muslim woman praying
Retrieved from Pexels

Chimamanda Adichie Ngozi: the female voice of an African immigrant in the United States of America


Given the importance that discrimination has acquired in literature of English-speaking authors from diverse cultures, we attempt to revise and analyze this phenomenon through the literary work of the Nigerian writer Chimamanda Adichie Ngozi, who is recognized as one of the most prolific authors of Nigeria.

three people in an interview
Obtained from GettyImages


She was born in Enugu, Nigeria in 1977 during one of the most critical financial crisis of this country that comprises between the decades of 1970 until 1990. During this period, the output prices of oil declined which caused a major downfall in the economy (ThisTime. 2016. Para. 4-6). Moreover, as the economy of the country lost value to the point of being declared as a low-income country by the World Bank, there were socio-political changes in this nation such as a constant conflict between ethnicities, expulsion of several illegal workers and the privatization of many public enterprises due to the completely-centralized policies of government of the Nigeria of this period. With this, it could be considered that Nigeria, in this period, was a country with a high rate of poverty and national discontent which led to Adichie to interrupt her studies of medicine at the age of 20 to pursuit studies on communication and political science in the United States of America, where she experienced first-hand the stereotypes Americans and popular culture had about African culture (St. Louis Public Radio, 2018).


This experience marked her perception regarding topics as the perception of Africans in literature regarding stereotyping and various types of discrimination; hence, becoming an advocate for feminism and ethnic equality as this is evidenced in several of her literary works such as Americanah (2013) that narrates the story of a Nigerian young woman that migrates to the US in order to pursuit her dreams of studying since in Nigeria she did not have a future. There, she faces the challenges an immigrant has to face such as discrimination, adaptation to a different culture within the framework of youth and young love. In this sense, this work is considered as an analysis of the different perspective of African immigrants and their struggles regarding “how their immigrant status affects them through gender, race, as well as economically and culturally” (Yazher. 2017. p.1). Furthermore, it seems that her voice not only extends to the problem of African immigrants in the United States, but also takes into account the discrimination that women experience, especially African women in society nowadays as in her relevant TED talk and later essay We All Should be Feminist (2013) in which she advocates for the issues that African women experience in African society and highlights the importance of being feminist regardless genders.


In addition in 2009, publishes The Thing Around Your Neck, a collection of shorts stories centered in African culture from the point of view of the immigrant in America. Within which the short story homonymous obtains special importance as an object of analysis of this research.

Obtained from Gettyimages


The Thing Around your neck (2009): Field, Tenor and mode.


For the purpose of this research, it is first needed to clarify what it is understood as field, tenor and mode since this represents the most suitable approach to the literary text and the nature of this paper as it provides separate and marked frameworks for analysis and development of texts. Halliday and Hasan (1989) developed a model for the text analysis regarding the register of it that is divided in field, tenor and mode. The first is intended as the subject of matter, the context of the situation presented in the text as well as the situation itself. The tenor represents the social relation between the participants that focuses on the register and hierarchical interaction and mode that specifies the structural format of the text meaning verbal or nonverbal forms of the text as well as their formal structures.


This classification serves as a method to divide the main feature of the text in order to analyze and get to a more complex comprehension of the different processes that interact and constitutes that text. Hence, for the purpose of this analysis, it will be taken into consideration this model as a form of approaching and subdividing of the text that is taken as subject of analysis, the short story The thing around your neck (2009) by the Nigerian writer Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie.


First, the mode of “The thing around your neck” (2009) is written in a short story structure with a narrative in form of a monologue in second person singular (you) that could be considered as a strategy to allow the reader to feel identify with the experience narrated.


Second regarding the tenor, it could be divided in two categories: a macro and a micro. The first is presented in the narrative in which the narrator and the main character are the same; this is represented as Akunna’s inner voice that narrates the story from her perspectives and experiences being an immigrant in the US. In contrast to this, the micro perspective takes into consideration the story narrated, in which Akunna is the immigrant and she is not in terms of equality regarding opportunities and, hence, hierarchy in opposition to the average American citizen. With this, it is presented a hierarchical structure in which the main character observes the situation and interacts with it from the perspective of an inferior. Furthermore, it is necessary to highlight that above these categories, it is present the voice of the writer that could be regarded as the one in charge of defining the roles and ideological positions of the characters as well as the social hierarchy that each one possesses.


Finally in the field, it is presented a narration of the story of Akunna, a Nigerian woman who wins the green card lottery and migrates to the US. She faces different challenges as a foreigner such as sexual harassment from his uncle, problems of adaptation to the new culture, difficulty for economic solvency due to his immigration status, work below the minimum wage, inability to pursue higher education due to her economic situation and above all discrimination due to her ethnicity, youth and her condition as an immigrant and woman. As much time as she spends in that new country, a sentiment of suffocation starts increasing, described as a thing around her neck. Which leads her to question whether her decision of migrating was correct as she faces the clash between her perceptions and what she perceives as the general American thought. Finally, she decides to release that feeling of suffocation when she turns back to her country leaving the reader the open end of whether she eventually decides to return to America or not. Regarding the language, it is noticeable that throughout the narration there is a constant comparison between American and African culture and how the main character perceives them. This is reflected in the uses of Igbo words that are part of the languages spoken in Nigeria. With this, it would be possible to claim that the language used has an important role in the development of the perceptions and interactions between the characters.



Ideational metafunction in The thing around your neck: an approach to the clause as a representation.

As Halliday and Matthiessen (2004) state, language has functions in the social environment that are recreating the experiences and social relations as a manner of construct of “human experience” (p.29) and convert them into meaning. Ideational metafunction is the lexicogrammar resources for the analysis of the meaning of these experiences. This metafunction of the text can be analyzed through the examination of the clause as a representation in which the semantic level of analysis postulated by Halliday and Matthiessen (2004) is applied. With this, the clause can be interpreted as a whole and each individual element with relevant meaning in the short story can be analyzed in-depth for the purpose of this research. In this sense, an excerpt of The Thing Around your neck (2009) will be divided into two parts. The first, referred to the clauses, takes into consideration the perception that the protagonist has on the word “home” and the second, on her perspective regarding her host country, America.


“You laughed with your uncle and you felt at home in his house; his wife called you nwanne, sister, and his two school-age children called you Aunty. They spoke Igbo and ate garri for lunch and it was like home.” (p. 98)


In this first part, Akunna explains how was the dynamic of living with her Nigerian family and the form in which she felt regarding aspect of Nigerian culture, described as “home.” In this sense, the main character uses verbs in their past tense such as “laughed”, “felt”, “called”, “spoke” and “ate” in association with the word “home” that represents a recurrent word used throughout the story. With this, it would be possible to affirm that, in this case, the clauses acquire a positive connotation.


From the semantic point of view, the verbs laughed (laugh) and felt (feel) are mental processes, described by Halliday and Matthiessen (2004) as “construing the inner experience of an emotion.” (p.170). Thus, the fact that those are mental processes involves the perception of the character. This perception is involved as a manner of filter between her and the reality. In other words, Akunna perceives the elements of this family’s dynamic as an inner positive experience referred to the concept of home due to the language used.


Furthermore, the verbs “called” (call) and “spoke” (speak) are verbal processes which are “symbolic relationships constructed in human consciousness and enacted in the form of language” (Halliday and Matthiessen. 2004. p.171). Those processes of the act of speaking in this situation can be seen with a positive connotation since they are accompanied by foreign words from Akunna’s home culture, in Nigeria. Semantically, it would be possible to say that there are certain words that are commonly related with positive perceptions. This would be the case of words that refer to the family since they are generally associated with positive feelings of proximity, warmth. In the following clause, we can see how the word “sister” is used together with words in the main character’s mother tongue, making this entire clause a representation of what is missed by Akunna:


“his wife called you nwanne, sister”


This represents not only the comfort of being called sister but also the positive intention of being called “sister” in one’s home culture. Correspondingly, in the clauses


“They spoke Igbo and ate garri”


The verbal process spoke (speak) and the material process ate (eat) are both attached to foreign words. The first is meant as a language spoken in Nigeria by 18 million habitants. The second, being part of the traditional food of Nigeria. Consequently, it could be arguable that the features that compose the main character’s home culture can bring, semantically, alter the connotation of the process. In other words, it could resemble a linguistic strategy for Akunna to highlight the marked differences between her perceptions regarding her culture and her experiences in America. In other words, it could be perceived as pattern in which when a process is followed by an Igbo word, it would have a positive connotation for Akunna.


In contrast, the elements in clauses related to her experiences or perceptions regarding America tend to represent negative connotations as it is presented in the following clauses


“He picked you up at the airport and bought you a big hot dog with yellow mustard that nauseated you. Introduction to America, he said with a laugh.” (p. 97)


First, it is necessary illustrate what is intended as a material process. Defined as “construing the outer experience of the creation of a commodity” (Halliday and Matthiessen. 2004. p. 170) that is to say, a material process involves a physical, therefore external, activity. In this case, the clauses


“He picked you up at the airport and bought you a big hot dog with yellow mustard”


The processes picked up and bought are material accompanied by concrete nouns such as airport and hot dog are followed by a subordinated clause


“that nauseated you.”


This clause carries a mental process that confers a negative association regarding the preceding clauses. With this, the main character may want to transmit her feeling towards America. From a more specific point of view, the word hot dog not only represents a certain type of food but also it has a great importance in the construction of the image of America. Hence, the feeling of sickness that this food brings to Akunna can serve as a metaphor of her feeling towards America. This statement can be demonstrated through the following clause


“Introduction to America, he said with a laugh.”


The phrase Introduction to America can be an indication that those feelings that she experimented will be the general sensations that she will perceived throughout her stay in the US.


Moreover, in the story the uncle of the main character tries to have sexual relations with her however she stops him. He proceeds to tell her that the only form in which women succeeded was letting men use them physically as it is narrated in the following excerpt:


If you let him, he would do many things for you. Smart women did it all the time. How did you think those women back home in Lagos with well-paying jobs made it? Even women in New York City? (p.98)


From the point of view of pragmatics, it is important to highlight the sentence “Smart women did it all the time” since the mood element is “smart women” which makes an emphasis on the adjective “smart.” In other words, it could be analyzed that only smart women are able to realize that the only form to professionally succeed is by having sexual relations with those in power, in this case, referred as men. Furthermore, Akunna’s uncle specifies that that occurs everywhere since that is the only mode in which women of New York City or Lagos “with well-paying jobs made it”.




Macro-social analysis: social relations and institutions

Institutionalized racism in the US


After the analysis of the linguistic context of the short story, as proposed by Fairclough (1995), it is necessary to take into consideration the social aspect of the text understood as the historical, economic, cultural and political situation of a given society. These levels in Fairclough’s model of discourse analysis are designated as macro and micro social analysis. The first is intended as examination of the social relations perpetuated by influential social institutions such as the government and, consequently, laws derived from it. On the other hand, the micro social analysis is focused on how these perpetuations of social behaviors are portrayed by individuals inside the society.

Equal rights protestors
From Pexels

 


Throughout the history of the US, it has been presented different occasions in which institutions have not only allowed racism but also promoted this behavior. For instance, in 1876 it was implemented the legal system called the Jim Craw Law which separated African American from white population stating the conception of equal but separate. This law was abolished in the Civil Rights Act of 1965, almost twenty years after the World War II. However, it is possible to argue that although institutions do not support racism in the United States, there are marked differences between African Americans and immigrants and the Caucasian population that represents the traditional image of this country.


The United States of The thing around your neck (2009) is a nation governed by Barack Obama, an African American. With this, it could be possible consider the government of an African American as a precedent regarding racial equality that would result in the improvement of the quality of life of the community of color until obtaining social equality. Indeed, since 1965 it was approved a commission called U.S Equal Employment Opportunity Commission in charge of protecting people from discrimination based on a person’s ancestor, country of origin, accent or ethnic community. However, it is a fact that still there is a considerable gap between the income of a white American and an African American. Moreover, the difference regarding income increases when immigrants are included. Jan (2017) asserts that white families have ten times the net worth than African and Hispanic families since the opportunities of work regarding both groups are not equal which is reflected in the annual income average of each group.


Although it is not explicit the form in which institutions permit the difference between the incomes in the different ethnic groups, this contrast is presented in the part in which Akunna searches for a job: “You walked into the restaurant with the bright, clean awning and said you would work for two dollars less than the other waitresses. […]He said he had never had a Nigerian employee but all immigrants worked hard.”(p.98). With this, it is noticeable that immigrants and members of minorities get paid less than white population.


Micro-Social analysis: quotidian actions of people in society

How Immigrants perceive America


Through the textual analysis of Akunna’s perception on what America is and the contrast between it and her concept of “home”, it is possible to find a relation of reciprocity among the textual level of analysis and its discursive practice; in other words, the individual actions of people in society as a reflection of this matter.


In the short story, the main character constantly describes negative feelings towards the US as in the clauses “The trick was to understand America, to know that America was give-and-take. You gave up a lot but you gained a lot, too.” (Ngozi, 2009, p.97) With this, it is possible to assume that Akunna considers that, in order to live in America, she most sacrifice several aspects of her life regarding work, relationships with others, education and/or sexual freedom. This is supported along with the following paragraph:


Until your uncle came into the cramped basement where you slept with old boxes and cartons and pulled you forcefully to him, squeezing your buttocks, moaning. […] After you pushed him away, he sat on your bed—it was his house, after all—and smiled and said you were no longer a child at twenty-two. If you let him, he would do many things for you. Smart women did it all the time. How did you think those women back home in Lagos with well-paying jobs made it? Even women in New York City? (p.98)


In this paragraph, it is possible to observe that the main character, as a woman, is perceived as not as capable to find success in America as a man, immigrant or not, could be. This idea is based on the systemic oppression that immigrant women experience in the US in which immigrant women are “discouraged from voicing their opinions, particularly when they speak out against discrimination.” (Rodriguez, 2011, para. 2).


In fact, this situation of discrimination among women leads Akunna to confront several related difficulties related to the fact of being a woman, young immigrant such as education. This is presented in the following clauses: “You could not afford to go to school, because now you paid rent for the tiny room with the stained carpet. Besides, the small Connecticut town didn’t have a community college and credits at the state university cost too much.”(p.98). This could correlate with the fact that tuition payments in the US have become increasingly expensive in the last decades. CNBC illustrates this aspect declaring that from 1988 to 2018 there has been of more than the double regarding the cost of education. These digits have a consequence in the rate of immigrant’s education in the US which leads to difficulties in aspects of quality of life such as salary or access to health care.


Among others, in the short story, the main character experiences obstacles to obtain a stable economic life such as the inferior payment that she receives in the restaurant she works at as it is illustrated in the following clauses “You walked into the restaurant with the bright, clean awning and said you would work for two dollars less than the other waitresses. […]He said he had never had a Nigerian employee but all immigrants worked hard.”(p.98). This is connected to the fact that there is a noticeable difference between the payment of an US citizen and an immigrant. According to Forbes, in 2017 there was a significant difference between the annual income of an US-born citizen (59.689$) and the income of an immigrant (40.175$) This acquisitive difference in turn affects the possibility of accessing education or even having medical attention as well as the capability of acquiring any type of luxury.


Still, you chose long brown envelopes to send half your month’s earnings to your parents at the address of the parastatal where your mother was a cleaner; you always used the dollar notes that Juan gave you because those were crisp, unlike the tips. (p.99).


This paragraph portrays the restrictions that the main character suffers due to her low income which translates into low quality of life.


Lastly, to this environment of educational, monetary and sexual repression, the aspect of discrimination could be added not only due to of her position as a woman but also due to of her ethnicity.


Later you told him why you were upset, that even though you went to Chang’s so often together, even though you had kissed just before the menus came, the Chinese man had assumed you could not possibly be his girlfriend, and he had smiled and said nothing. (p.103).


This represent a constant problematic treated in different fields of investigation since although in the year in which the short story was written (2008) Barack Obama was elected president of the US, the rate of racism did not decrease. “you could not possibly be his girlfriend” makes an emphasis in the mood element (you) that specifies that other person could possibly be his girlfriend but not the African main character. This is depicted in a “post-racial America”, in other words, an America that technically avoided racial discrimination. Even though that in the discourse practice, 64% of American citizens claim that racial segregation still remains as an important problematic.



Conclusion: the representation of the African female immigrant in American Society


Through the tridimensional analysis postulated by Fairclough, it has been possible to perceive the different problems presented by the fact of being an immigrant, African and woman in American society. Akunna, the main character is confronted with the contrast between American and Nigerian culture in which she does not have equality due to her status of an African immigrant that cannot obtain the same economic stability of the white population. This prevents her from having a standard lifestyle that includes access to education. On the other hand, her status as a woman, in the case of her interaction with her uncle, shows her that the power is mainly held by the male gender and that the only way in which she could obtain such stability would be to succumb to the wishes of this gender since this would be the only way to be "successful" in America. Finally, all these perceptions are marked within the language used in which the semantics show how Akunna negatively perceives many aspects of the host-culture in contrast to the aspects of her home-culture and how the use of foreign words of her native language exacerbates this contrast. With all this, it is possible to argue that "The Thing Around Your Neck" (2009) represents a visualization and protest against discrimination and stereotypes of African culture, especially the culture of Nigeria which provides an immigrant perspective within this social phenomenon.




References

Adichie, C. N. (2009). The thing around your neck. London: Fourth Estate.

Adichie, C. N. (2013). Americanah (First edition.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Adichie, C. N. (2013). We should all be feminists.

Chambre, H and McLellan, D. (2018). Marxism. Britannica.com. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/Marxism

Clark, Perry and Arenge (2018). Poll: 64 percent of Americans say racism remains a major problem. NBCnews. Retrieved from https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/politics-news/poll-64-percent-americans-say-racism-remains-major-problem-n877536

Discrimination (2019). Cambridge Online Dictionary. Retrieved from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/es/diccionario/ingles/discrimination

Fairclough, N (1989). Language and Power (10th ed.). Longman Group: Harlow

Fresh Air. 'Americanah' Author Explains 'Learning' To Be Black In The U.S. St. Louis Public Radio. Retrieved from https://news.stlpublicradio.org/post/americanah-author-explains-learning-be-black-us#stream/0

Halliday and Matthiessen (2004). An Introduction to Functional Grammar (3rd ed.). Hodder Headline Group: London.

Human Rights Legal Support Centre (n.d). What is discrimination? HRLSC. Retrieved from https://www.hrlsc.on.ca/en/what-is-discrimination

Khraus, M (2012). Status Hierarchies: Do We Need Them? PsychologyToday.com. Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/under-the-influence/201210/status-hierarchies-do-we-need-them

Luebering, J. (n.d). Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie. Britannica.com. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/biography/Chimamanda-Ngozi-Adichie

M.A.K Halliday et al. (1989) (2nd ed.) Language, context and text: aspects of language in social-semiotic perspective. Oxford University Press: Oxford.

Martin, E. (2017). Here’s how much more expensive it is for you to go to college than it was for your parents. CNBC. Retrieved from https://www.cnbc.com/2017/11/29/how-much-college-tuition-has-increased-from-1988-to-2018.html

McCarthy, N. (2017). The Massive Wage Gap Between U.S. Citizens And Immigrants [Infographic]. Forbes. Retrieved from https://www.forbes.com/sites/niallmccarthy/2017/03/07/the-massive-wage-gap-between-u-s-citizens-and-immigrants-infographic/#2f90f4fa3e65

Nakayama and Martin (2010). Intercultural Communication in Contexts (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill: New York.

Rodriguez, M. (2011). Immigrant Women Caught in Systemic Oppression. National Organization for Women. Retrieved from https://now.org/blog/immigrant-women-caught-in-systemic-oppression/

This Day (2016). Economic Crisis: How Nigeria Failed to Learn from History. Thisdaylive.com. Retrieved from https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2016/05/04/economic-crisis-how-nigeria-failed-to-learn-from-history/

Wajeman, L. (2016). Migration literature as a new world literature? An overview of the main arguments. Aix-Marseille Université. Retrieved from http://cielam.univ-amu.fr/node/1983

Welch, C. (n.d). What is the "human condition"? Retrieved from https://learn.lexiconic.net/humancondition.htm

Yazher, M. (2017). Race and Gender Discrimination (vol.3). Jay Shriram Group of Institution. Puneresearch.com. Retrieved from http://puneresearch.com/media/data/issues/58b9c43a1ec60.pdf
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My name is Oriana. I am a remote worker and social media enthusiast! I love reading, writing and sharing ideas. When not working, you will surely find me in the kitchen baking, drinking black coffee while listening to a truecrime podcast or playing with my puppy, Nix.

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Who Am I?


My name is Oriana. I am a remote worker and social media enthusiast! I love reading, writing and sharing ideas. When not working, you will surely find me in the kitchen baking, drinking black coffee while listening to a truecrime podcast or playing with my puppy, Nix.

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